The History of Santa Claus

Have you ever wondered how and why Christmas came to be associated with jolly old Santa Claus? In keeping with my holiday goal to raise my laziness to sloth-like proportions, I will allow the following video to explain how Sinterklaas, Saint Nicholas, Father Christmas, and Kris Kringle figure into the history of that portly, good-natured fellow who satisfies our materialistic appetites each December. Happy Holidays, everyone!

The Photographic Past, Part IV

After an extremely unfortunate, finals-induced hiatus, "The Hopeless History Major" is finally back. To make amends for my prolonged absence from the blogosphere, Part IV of The Photographic Past will be a "Supersized Edition." With a few extra photographs in tow, this post pairs well with freedom...err..french fries & a soda (or a milkshake, for the bolder individuals in the audience). As always, please enjoy the scenery of history.

Armed neutrality aside, these Swiss soldiers look seriously formidable. As far as military training goes, wrestling in the Alps seem to be a viable route. The impeccable form on that pile driver alone would be enough to drive "Stone Cold" Steve Austin to sobriety. (ca. 1919)

Though she was not the first woman in space (that title belongs to Valentina Tereshkova of the Soviet Union), Anna Lee Fisher became "the First Mother in Space.". As part of mission STS-51A, the 2nd flight of Space Shuttle Discovery and the 14th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle Program, Fisher spent just under eight days in outer space. (ca. 1984)

The first-ever broadcast of ESPN's flagship program, SportsCenter, which opened with the line, "Yea, verily, a sampler of wonders." SportsCenter certainly hasn't become any less strange over the years, nor has the set become any less ugly. (ca. 1979)  

"Four small stepladders for men; one giant leap for mankind." -Neil Armstrong (not really).
Even though these NASA scientists appear to be conducting a glorified high school physics review session in this photo-op, they were part of an agency that would produce one of the human race's greatest accomplishments by the end of the decade: the moon landing. (ca. 1960's.)

A real-life Rosie the Riveter, though "Wendy the Welder" may be a more appropriate title for her line of work.  When the United States entered the Second World War there were 12 million women in the workforce. By the end of the war, that number had risen to over 18 million- more than one-third of the country's total workforce. (ca. 1943)

Leonardo da Vinci's "Mona Lisa" is returned to the Louvre after the conclusion of World War II in Europe. Prompted by the organized "Nazi Plunder" of priceless works of art all across Europe, the world-famous portrait was transferred first to Château d'Amboise, then to Loc-Dieu Abbey, Château de Chambord, and- finally- the Ingres Museum in southern France. (note: In the linked picture, Generals Eisenhower & Patton can be seen inspecting art that had stolen by German officials.) (ca. 1945)

A tale of two presidents. President John F. Kennedy visits former president Dwight D. Eisenhower at his home in Palm Springs, FL. Apparently, neither of them understood what a "swim suit" was. (ca. 1962)

Adolf Hitler shakes hands and bows deferentially to President Paul von Hindenburg on the day he was named Chancellor of Germany. Hindenburg was known to be privately skeptical of the young Austrian-born Hitler, who would come to control nearly 2.5 million square miles of European territory- a landmass nearly two-thirds the size of the continental United States. (ca. 1933)

Steve Cathey, one of the first professional skateboarders, photographed while riding through a housing development in La Costa, California. Though skateboarding was invented during the late 1940's and experienced brief periods of popularity throughout the '50's and '60's, the 1970's are now viewed as the truly formative period for the sport. (ca. 1975)

The unbroken seal of King Tutankhamun's tomb. The entrance to the nineteen-year old Pharaoh's tomb went untouched in the Valley of Kings for 3,245 years until Howard Carter's discovery in 1922. The result was one of the most extraordinary photographs of all time, in my opinion. Forgotten to the ages, the tomb remained hidden from discovery for thousands of years- allowing Harry Burton, a member of Carter's expedition, to photograph it essentially as it was when it was sealed more than three millennia before. (ca. 1922)

JFK: Fifty Years On

Fifty years ago today, on November 22, 1963, President John Fitzgerald Kennedy was fatally shot while traveling in a presidential motorcade in Dallas, Texas. The news of Kennedy's death shocked the nation and the world, and has prompted numerous conspiracy theories and numerous investigative commissions since the tragedy occurred. His respective merits and shortcomings aside, JFK was a truly global figure; his admirers came from a host of socioeconomic and cultural backgrounds. The shining moment of his short-lived administration, the aversion of nuclear war with the Soviet Union during the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962, is proverbially hailed as one of the most critical diplomatic successes of the twentieth century. And his untimely death, too, remains a landmark moment in the history of the United States. Occurring in a decade marked by the promise of substantial social and political change, Kennedy's death served as an omen of the forthcoming tragedies that would dash the hopeful spirit of the '60's- the 1968 assassinations of Martin Luther King, Jr. and Robert F. Kennedy, among them.

John F. Kennedy- immortalized as he may be- was not a perfect president, nor was he a perfect person. He was, however, inspiring both as a public servant and an individual. Half a century on, in a world that recalls many of the uncertainties of the 1960's, we reflect upon President Kennedy's life and death with reverence and solemnity.

John F. Kennedy; Friday, November 22, 1963.

The Photographic Past, Part III

This is what a railroad bridge looked like at the turn of the 20th Century. I think I'd just stay home.
Oregon, ca. 1901-04.

Muhammed Ali celebrates his third round victory over Cleveland Williams in their Heavyweight Title bout on November 14, 1966. The fight was Williams's first since he'd been been shot in the abdomen by a police officer during a traffic stop.

In July 1960, Jane Goodall arrived in the British Protectorate of Tanganyika to study the behavioral patterns of primates. Her ensuing 45-year study at Gombe Stream National Park would result in her consideration as the world's foremost expert on chimpanzees. 

Adolf Hitler, V.I. Lenin, Julius Caesar, Napoleon Bonaparte, Emperor Hirohito... Coca Cola.
Not sure if this is a Coke or a Pepsi advertisement. ca. 1950s.

The Mayflower II, an exact replica of the original, sails into New York Harbor at the end of its transatlantic voyage in 1957. No word on whether or not the blimp was an exact replica too.

Mickey Mantle tosses his batting helmet during a 1965 game at Yankee Stadium. If those forearms are any indication, that helmet still hasn't landed.

A young American soldier in Vietnam, photographed with The Beatles' 1967 LP "Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band." The average age of the 58,148 US soldiers killed in Vietnam was just 23.11 years ("Statistics About the Vietnam War").

In 1966, brothers Sly (pictured above) and Freddie Stone merged their two bands to form "Sly & the Family Stone." By 1969, the pioneering funk band was performing at The Woodstock Music & Art Fair. By 1973, Bob Marley & The Wailers were their opening act.

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"Statistics About the Vietnam War." History.com. The History Channel, n.d. Web. 04 Nov. 2013. <http://www.vhfcn.org/stat.html>.

NBA Tip-Off Special

It's the most wonderful time of the year, folks: the NBA season will finally get underway tonight, as the defending champions, the Miami Heat, face the Chicago Bulls. Derrick Rose's return to regular season action promises to be an exciting one, despite the collective cringe that Bulls fans will perform each time he falls to the floor. 

Between Miami's pursuit of a three-peat, an accomplishment that would arguably thrust Lebron James into the Michael Jordan/Kobe Bryant echelon of the NBA Pantheon, and #The(LongAwaited)Return, 

the 2013-14 Season Opener has been hyped since the matchup was announced in August. From a historical perspective, though, it is just the next in a long line of highly anticipated NBA Tip-Off contests. 

Over the past sixty-seven years, the National Basketball Association has transformed itself from a small amalgamation of teams known as the Basketball Association of America (BAA) to a multi-billion-dollar display of dazzling sports entertainment. Each season has been accompanied by new story lines, new faces, 

old faces in new places, and, above all, the intrigue of a new year.

The first-ever NBA game took place on November 1, 1946- in Canada, of all places. The New York Knickerbockers defeated Toronto Huskies 68-66 in a game that hardly resembled that of the modern era ("The First Game"). The shot clock had not yet come into existence, the jump shot was a less-popular alternative to the set shot, and tickets prices didn't exceed the GDP per capita of a developing nation.

In its awkward teenage years, the NBA would gain one of its all-time greats. Having already achieved national recognition for his dominance as a Kansas Jayhawk and a Harlem Globetrotter, twenty-three year old Wilt Chamberlain made his NBA debut on October 24, 1959. "The Big Dipper" gave a glimpse of his record-setting career to come, scoring 43 points while gathering an absurd 28 rebounds ("Philadelphia Warriors at New York Knicks"). Three years later, Wilt would become the only player to ever score 100 points in a single game. 

Ever the scoring threat, Chamberlain would
later claim to have slept with 20,000 women.
According to MentalFloss.com, that'd be about
500 women per year...

Over the next few decades, the NBA competed with the American Basketball Association (ABA) for basketball hegemony. That changed on August 5, 1976, when the NBA-ABA merger resulted in the addition of four new teams for the 1976-77 season. On October 21, 1976, the Indiana Pacers became the first former ABA team to compete in a regular season NBA game, falling to the John Havlicek-led Boston Celtics, 129-122 ("Boston Celtics at Indiana Pacers"). Interestingly, no former ABA team would win an NBA title until 1999, when the San Antonio Spurs won their first of four championships. 

Less than a decade after the merger, Michael Jordan made his debut in the NBA. By the 1984-85 season, the NBA had asserted itself among the major sports leagues in North America- due in large part to the marketability of superstars such as Ervin "Magic" Johnson and Larry "The Hick from French Lick" Bird. Michael Jordan took the term "superstar" to an entirely new level during his illustrious career with the Chicago Bulls. That all started on October 26, 1984, when he gave the 13,913 in attendance at Chicago Stadium a glimpse of what was to come over the next decade and a half (6 championships, 6 Finals MVP Awards, 5 Regular Season MVP Awards, 10 Scoring Titles, and 14 All Star Appearances, to be exact).

After Jordan’s retirement, no player’s NBA debut was as highly anticipated Lebron James's first appearance with the Cleveland Cavaliers in 2003. Since that time, though, James's name has become more associated with “The Decision,” in which he left Cleveland for Miami in July 2010. Arguably the most impactful free agent decision since Shaquille O’Neal left Orlando for Los Angeles in 1996, it came as no surprise that Miami’s 2010-11 season opener against the Boston Celtics delivered record-setting ratings, reaching a total of 7,433,000 viewers ("TNT Has Record-Setting Ratings for NBA Season Opener"). Hell hath no fury like a Cleveland sports fan scorned, though, and much to their delight, James committed 8 turnovers in Miami’s 88-80 defeat.

Since that time, the Heat have made three straight Finals appearances—winning the last two. Tonight, they begin their journey towards a fourth straight Finals appearance, a feat which has only occurred three times in the history of the NBA (Boston Celtics, 1959-66; Los Angeles Lakers, 1982-85; Boston Celtics, 1984-87). Meanwhile, the Bulls seek to live up to the high expectations surrounding Derrick Rose’s return to action after an 18-month recovery from his ACL tear in the 2012 NBA Playoffs. At 8 PM ET on TNT, the journey will begin for the Bulls, Heat, and twenty-eight other teams across the league. 

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"Boston Celtics at Indiana Pacers." Basketball-Reference.com. Sports Reference LLC, n.d. Web. 28 Oct. 2013. <http://www.basketball-reference.com/boxscores/197610210IND.html>.
Goldaper, Sam. "The First Game." NBA.com. National Basketball Association. Web. 28 Oct. 2013 <http://www.nba.com/history/firstgame_feature.html>.

"Philadelphia Warriors at New York Knicks." Basketball-Reference.com. Sports Reference LLC, n.d. Web. 28 Oct. 2013. <http://www.basketball-reference.com/boxscores/195910240NYK.html>.
"TNT Has Record-setting Ratings for NBA Season Opener." NBA.com. National Basketball Association, n.d. Web. 29 Oct. 2013. <http://www.nba.com/2010/news/10/27/tnt-ratings/>.

Really Old Things

One of the greatest aspects of historical study is its ability to make the past tangible. Though we lack physical evidence for some of the most intriguing and monumental sites of the past (i.e. The Colossus at Rhodes or The Hanging Gardens of Babylon), we are blessed with a bounty of relics of the Earth's past that still exist today. Natural features shaped over millennia, documents miraculously preserved through the ages, and glorious (or inglorious) buildings from previous Civilizations afford us invaluable insight into what the world was like before we arrived on the scene. Some physical historical evidence is iconic, some is obscure. Regardless, these really old things are full of experience, significance, and wonder.

Methuselah (ca. 2832 BC)

Until this year, Methuselah held the distinction of being the oldest non-clonal tree in the world. At 4845 years of age, this Great Basin bristlecone pine's exact location in the White Mountains of California is kept a secret- sadly, for the fear that the ancient tree would be defaced by vandals ("Methuselah Tree"). In addition to being a really badass-sounding name, Methuselah is a very fitting one- Biblical figure Methuselah was purported to be the oldest man in human history, living to the ripe old age of 969 years old. Oh, the Social Security... 

Hurrian Hymn no. 6 (ca. 1400 BC)

Discovered in Syria in the mid-20th Century, "Hurrian Hymn no. 6" is the oldest melody known to the human race. More than 3400 years old, the melody's arrangement has been preserved in the form of cuneiform inscriptions on clay tablets. While it's staggering to think how audio recordings may bring us into the studio with Louis Armstrong in 1931, or into John Lennon's bedroom at The Dakota, the existential weight that accompanies the realization that this ancient music has survived & can be performed today is immense.

The Treasury at Petra (ca. 1st Century AD)

Perhaps most recognized for its appearance in Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade, the ancient Jordanian city of Petra remained unknown to the Western world until 1812. Legend holds that The Treasury, or "Al Khazneh," once stored the wealth of an Egyptian Pharaoh at the time of Moses. It was originally built, though, as a Mausoleum during the reign of Aretas IV Philopatris ("Petra"). The spectacular building was carved into the side of the sandstone cliffs southern Jordan, and seemingly belongs to the fantasy world of Indiana Jones more than it does to this one. 

Cenacle (Date Unknown)

The Cenacle, commonly known as the "Upper Room," has been identified by some scholars as the first Christian Church. It's better known, though, for hosting the Last Supper. Let me re-type that in caps lock for added emphasis: THE LAST SUPPER. The Cenacle is also considered to be the site of numerous events of significance in the New Testament, including the washing of the feet; several resurrection appearances of Jesus; and the gathering of the disciples after the Ascension of Jesus. The building miraculously survived Titus's destruction of Jerusalem in 70 AD, and subsequent crises during the Crusades and Ottoman rule over the region ("Jerusalem (A.D. 71-1099)").

University of Oxford (ca. 1096 AD)

Fun Fact: Oxford University is older than the Aztecs. The origination of the Aztec Civilization was marked by the establishment of Tenochtitlan in 1325. Though its exact date of establishment is unknown, teaching had begun at Oxford by 1096 (Just imagine those 11th Century Frat Stars...). By contrast, the oldest institution of higher learning in the United States, Harvard University, was founded in 1636- a 540-year age difference ("History"). Even Hugh Hefner couldn't justify that. 

Nicolas Cage (ca. mid-19th Century)

Evidently, Nic Cage has been around since the Civil War era. Fortunately, due to his spectacular longevity, Cage has been able to grace the silver screen an astounding 72 times, appearing in national treasures such as Bangkok Dangerous, Ghost Rider, and The Wicker Man ("Nicolas Cage"). Be careful what you say about Nic Cage, because he's probably a vampire.
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Fortescue, Adrian. "Jerusalem (A.D. 71-1099)." The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 8. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1910. 25 Oct. 2013<http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08355a.htm>.
"History." Harvard University. Harvard University, n.d. Web. 25 Oct. 2013. <http://www.harvard.edu/history>.

"Methuselah Tree." NOVA Online. PBS, Nov. 2001. Web. 25 Oct. 2013. <http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/methuselah/>.

"Nicolas Cage." IMDb. IMDb.com, n.d. Web. 25 Oct. 2013. <http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0000115/>.
"Petra." UNESCO World Heritage Centre. United Nations, n.d. Web. 25 Oct. 2013. <http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/326>.

Propaganda: The Art of Persuasion

As an admittedly uninformed appreciator of art, works of propaganda have long held a particular appeal  for me as a result of their stark & meaningful imagery (and, of course, their historical value). Varying according to their national and temporal origins, these highly politicized pieces of art exhibit numerous styles and, in my opinion, are just plain cool. Some pieces have an understated character, while others are about as subtle as Miley Cyrus's trailer-park-Lady Gaga act. Either way, these works tend to be exceptionally compelling. 

Freedom isn't Free.

Democratic or Autocratic, Capitalist or Socialist, Badass or Blah; every type of regime has taken to the art of propaganda in order to promote their own distinctive policies, ideologies, and causes. From Uncle Sam to Guerrillero Heroico, these iconic images have resonated in the hearts and minds of countless people across time and space. The following examples exhibit just a few of the ways in which propaganda has been used to mobilize public opinion and action.

United Kingdom (ca. 1915)

 Oh, what a jolly, quaint affair that first World War must have been! Recruitment posters such as this 1915 piece aided in the mobilization of over 65 million soldiers worldwide, 9 million of which came from the United Kingdom alone ("WWI Casualty and Death Tables"). In just four years, 37 million "lads," a staggering 57.5% of the war's combatants, were killed, injured, or went missing as a result of a fatal combination of advanced military technology, flawed military doctrine, and unwavering political ideology.

United States (ca. 1942)

As World War II ravaged Europe for the second time in three decades, Salvador Dalí retreated to the United States- where he spent the next eight years of his life ("Salvador Dalí Biography"). During that time, the surrealist visionary produced this work for the US Military's campaign against Venereal Diseases. Among many works warning United States troops against the dangers of sexual relations with unfamiliar women in unfamiliar lands, this painting stands out for its depth & hidden imagery (Spoiler Alert: The women form a skull). 


France (ca. 1911)

An especially cynical & French take on socioeconomic organization, "Pyramid of Capitalist System" is an iconic piece of propaganda. Illustrating the exploitative relationship between the working class, the bourgeoisie, the armed forces, the clergy, and the government, this poster can be seen as a source of inspiration for the Wu Tang Clan's 1993 social commentary, C.R.E.A.M. ("Cash Rules Everything Around Me"). It can also be reasonably assumed that this poster inspired more than a few strongly-worded letters to French Representatives- out to keep the man down while they fatted themselves on baguettes & éclairs. Sacré Bleu!


United States (ca. 1938)

Though the "Red Scare" may seem irrational in retrospect, you better believe you would've had some sleepless nights waiting for OctoStalin to pop out from underneath your bed & convert your political allegiances. Published before the outbreak of WWII, this "pam-phlet"foreshadowed the impending rivalry between the US & USSR, whose utilitarian wartime alliance would last just four years.


Soviet Union (ca. 1941)

On June 22, 1941, Germany launched "Operation Barbarossa," its fateful invasion of the Soviet Union that opened a second front in WWII & ultimately devastated the Third Reich's ability to wage a successful war effort. The Soviet resistance was exceptionally fierce, partially due to the menacing racial ideology of Nazi Germany- which called for the enslavement of all Slavic peoples. The insanity of the Hitler's racial policies are mocked in these Soviet political cartoons portraying Reichstag President Hermann Goering & Propaganda Minister Joseph Goebbels.

Iraq (ca. 1980-88)

Now this is some effective propaganda! Surely this gentleman could be counted on to keep his people out of harm's way- just look how safe that girl looks. This Iraqi mural portraying Saddam "Rambo" Hussein dates to the Iran-Iraq War of the 1980's. In an era of training montages & mustaches, this piece is the truest form of art you could possibly imagine. The man is wearing Ray-Bans & a beret into battle for goodness' sake.

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"Salvador Dalí Biography." Salvador-Dali.org. Gala-Salvador Dalí Foundation, n.d. Web. 5 Oct. 2013. <http://www.salvador-dali.org/dali/en_biografia.html>.

"WWI Casualty and Death Tables." PBS.org. PBS. Web. 09 Oct. 2013 <http://www.pbs.org/greatwar/resources/casdeath_pop.html>.

The Dissolution of the Soviet Union

The collapse of the Soviet Union is one of those exceedingly complex events that seems to lie beyond the realm of basic understanding. Despite being one of the most momentous historical developments in the modern era, it is commonly explained in a pseudo-historical fashion, full of half-truths and outright misconceptions (Sorry, true American patriots, but Ronald Reagan didn’t single-handedly bring about the demise of the “Evil Empire.”)

Daggumit.

So how does a global superpower with a nuclear arsenal large enough to blow up the world many times over simply dissolve? Well, the explanation is multi-faceted, but can be explained through three main points:

• "Cultural Thaw"
• Protracted Economic & Political Stagnation
• Destabilizing Reform

"Cultural Thaw"

If Joseph Stalin ruled with an iron fist, Nikita Khrushchev ruled with a leather shoe. 

In his effort to bring about "socialism with a human face," Khrushchev temporarily relaxed state-imposed censorship during his reign as General Secretary of the Communist Party in the 1950's and '60's. His principle objective in doing so was to push forward the "De-Stalinization Campaign," which denounced the Great Purges, Industrialization, and other inhumane aspects of the Stalinist regime. More than doing that, Khrushchev's unprecedented openness proved that the Soviet system could be safely challenged, at a time when reform-minded Soviet youths, including future General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev, were coming of age.

Protracted Political & Economic Stagnation

The state's growth vegetated under Brezhnev, who suffered multiple strokes while in office.

Khrushchev wasn't without his critics, and after a series of unsuccessful reforms, he was removed from power by the Communist Party Secretariat in 1964. Under Leonid Brezhnev (see: Great Moments in Mustaches) and a series of gerontocrats (read: Geezers), Soviet political and economic life had quietly ground to a halt by the 1980's.

• As much as 30% of the GDP was committed to military expenditure, causing the consumer & technology sectors of the Soviet economy to remain in infancy. 
• The "advanced" industrial sector was inefficient & obsolete. Factories built during Stalin's First Five Year Plan (1928-32) continued to operate, and did so according to quotas based on the weight of their products, not on their profits.
• From 1973-85, a lopsided 80% of Soviet earnings relied upon energy exports- which were sustained by the discovery of vast oil reserves in Siberia during the 1960's (Kotkin 15).

The Soviet economy failed to keep pace with those its capitalist contemporaries in the West, which had undergone unprecedented economic growth following World War II. The tenets of socialism held that it was a fundamentally superior system to capitalism, yet the stagnation of the Soviet economy suggested that system required change.

Destabilizing Reform

An idealist reformer, Gorbachev unwittingly sowed the seeds of inevitability.

Mikhail Gorbachev came into power in 1985 with the aim of initiating radical economic & political reforms to make socialism live up to the ideals of the October Revolution. Those sweeping liberal reforms came to be known as Glasnost and Perestroika, and had disastrous implications for the Soviet Union.

• Glasnost, or "openness," eased censorship once again. It discredited not only Stalin, but the entirety of Soviet socialism by revealing the political & economic inefficiencies of the Soviet Bureaucracy to the general public.
• Perestroika relaxed the planned economy, but without first introducing the market mechanisms needed to compete with advanced capitalist economies. The most advanced sectors of the economy (defense & heavy industry) were downsized, and Soviet industrial output plummeted.
• To make matters worse, global oil prices sharply declined in the 1980's, submerging the oil-dependent Russian economy into an outright recession. Faced with crippling shortages, the USSR became reliant on foreign loans for importing goods that it could not afford.

Worse than the economic aspect of Perestroika, though, was the bureaucratic reform that it introduced:

• Ever since the Russian Civil War, which immediately followed the October Revolution of 1917, a dual administrative structure existed within the USSR. The bureaucracy of the party grew alongside that of the state, acting as a central control mechanism for maintaining the unitary structure of the Soviet Union.
• In 1989, Gorbachev disbanded the Communist Party Secretariat- replacing the unitary structure with a federalized one, which emphasized the state powers of the constituent republics of the Union.
• With the socialist ideology of the Soviet Union discredited by Glasnost, the planned economy disrupted by Perestroika, and no central control mechanism in place, the Union Republics began to act as independent states.

Amazingly, the Soviet elite willingly disassembled the very institutional mechanisms that held the state together. Over the course of the next two years, the Soviet regime in Eastern Europe crumbled in a remarkably peaceful manner. The republics declared independence in a piecemeal fashion, the Berlin Wall fell, and the Soviet Union formally dissolved on December 26, 1991.

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Kotkin, Stephen. Armageddon Averted: The Soviet Collapse, 1970-2000. New York: Oxford University Press, 2003. Print.